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Buddhist Scriptures and Texts

There are a vast number of Buddhist scriptures and religious texts, which are commonly divided into the categories of canonical and non-canonical. The former, also called the Sutras (Sanskrit) or Suttas (Pali) are believed to be, either literally or metaphorically, the actual words of the Buddha. The latter are the various commentaries on canonical texts, other treatises on the Dharma, and collections of quotes, histories, grammars, etc.

This categorization is not universal, however: there will always be texts that cross boundaries, or that belong in more than one category. Moreover, Zen Buddhism rejects scriptures altogether as an ineffective path to enlightenment.

The articles below provide overviews of some of the most notable Buddhist texts.

Tripitaka (Pali Canon)

The Tripitaka (Tipitaka in Pali) is the earliest collection of Buddhist teachings and the only text recognized as canonical by Theravada Buddhists. Many commentaries have been added over the centuries, however. Tripitaka means "three baskets," from the way in which it was originally recorded: the text was written on long, narrow leaves, which were sewn at the edges then grouped into bunches and stored in baskets. The collection is also referred to as the Pali Canon, after the language in which it was first written. It is a vast collection of writings, comprising up to 50 volumes costing $2000 in some modern sets. Full article »

Mahayana Sutras

Mahayana Buddhism reveres the Tripitaka as a sacred text, but adds to it the Sutras, which reflect distinctively Mahayana concepts. Most of the Mahayana Sutras, which number over two thousand, were written between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the period in which Mahayana Buddhism developed. Different divisions of Mahayana Buddhism emphasize different Sutras, but some texts, like the Lotus Sutra and Heart Sutra, are important to most branches of Mahayana. Full article »

Tibetan Book of the Dead

The Tibetan Book of the Dead is the Tibetan text that is most well known to the West. Written by a Tibetan monk, the Book of the Dead describes in detail the stages of death from the Tibetan point of view. It chronicles the experiences and religious opportunities a person encounters at various stages: while dying, at the moment of death, during the 49-day interval between death and rebirth, and at rebirth. Full article »

Buddhist Things: Buddhist Art and Ritual Objects

The articles in this section explore the form, function and symbolism of the rich variety of objects used in Buddhist ritual and symbolic art.

General Buddhist Things			Tibetan Buddhist Things
	Begging Bowl The simple begging bowl is one of the very few possessions of a Buddhist monk. It is used to collect alms and symbolizes the Buddha's teachings.			Mandala A mandala is a sacred geometric figure that represents the universe and functions as a sacred area open to deities and forces.
	Buddha Image Although not used in earliest Buddhism, the Buddha image has become one of the most popular Mahayana Buddhist ritual objects.			Musical Instruments Bells, drums, trumpets and horns are used especially in esoteric Buddhism to symbolize mantras, dispel evil, and send out the Dharma.
	Incense Burners  One of the most universal of Buddhist ritual vessels, incense burners are used in all Buddhist cultures and range from large pots to small censers.			Prayer Wheel The Tibetan prayer wheel contains a roll of printed mantras; to spin the wheel is to release the prayers into the universe.
	Prayer Beads (Mala) Prayer beads, or mala beads, usually have 108 beads and are used both in Hinduism and Buddhism for counting mantras, chants or prayers.			Singing Bowl  When rubbed with a wooden puja stick, a Tibetan singing bowl makes a resonant sound that assists in meditation and produces a calming effect.
	Monks' Robes The garb of Buddhist monks varies widely, from the simple saffron robes of Thailand to the elaborate robes and headdresses of Tibetan lamas.			Skull Cup  The skull cup, normally made from a human skull, is an object used in Tibetan rituals and associated with wrathful deities in art.
	Stupas and Pagodas Stupas and pagodas are shrines containing sacred relics and appear in many sizes and styles throughout the Buddhist world.			Thangka A thangka ("flat painting") is a painted or embroidered banner hung in a monastery or a family altar and carried by lamas in ceremonial processions.
	Zen Art  Zen monks created the unique art of monochrome ink painting and calligraphy, which expresses the Zen principles of simplicity and spontaneity.			Vajra (Diamond Thunderbolt) The vajra is the central symbol and an important ritual object in Vajrayana Buddhism.
				Ritual Weapons Ritual weapons are used in Tibetan Buddhist art and ritual to symbolize the vanquishing of evil and ignorance.

Buddhism Timeline

c. 800-500 BCE	Composition of Hindu Upanishads
552-479 BCE	Life of Confucius
c. 500 BCE	Life of Lao-tzu
c. 480 BCE	Birth of the Buddha in Kapilavastu.
c. 450 BCE	The Buddha's enlightenment and first sermon.
c. 405 BCE	Death of the Buddha.
c. 405 BCE	First Buddhist Council, at Rajagrha.
c. 350 BCE	Second Buddhist Council, at Vaisali.
327-325 BCE	Alexander the Great in India.
c. 300 BCE	Buddhism arrives in SE Asia.
272 BCE	Emperor Asoka takes throne.
250 BCE	Third Buddhist Council, resulting in Great Schism and Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism
247 BCE	Mahinda introduces Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
200-0 BCE	Stupa construction at Sanci.
1st cent. BCE	Theravada Buddhist Canon (Tripitaka) completed in Sri Lanka.
1st cent. CE	Indian Buddhists settle in Southeast Asia.
150-250 CE	Life of Nagarjuna.
4th cent.	Rise of Vajrayana Buddhism.
350-650	Gupta dynasty in India; Buddhist philosophy and art flourish.
372 CE	Chinese monks bring Buddhism to Korea.
399-414	Fa-hsien travels to India.
c. 420	Schools of Tiantai, Huayan, Chan, and Jingtu appear in China.
520	Bodhidharma arrives in China.
526	Viniaya school founded in Korea.
527	Korea accepts Buddhism.
6th cent.	Burma adopts Theravada Buddhism.
552	Buddhism enters Japan from Korea.
572-621	Prince Shotoku sponsors Buddhism in Japan.
c. 589	Chinese Buddhist commentaries written.
c. 600	First diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet.
618-50	Life of Songtsen Gampo; establishment of Buddhism in Tibet.
618-907	Chinese T'ang Dynasty; golden age of Buddhism in China.
7th cent.	Mahayana Buddhism adopted in Indonesia.
8th cent.	Buddhism becomes state religion of Japan.
741	Japanese emperor orders a temple be built in every province.
c. 792-94	The Great Samye Debate decides on Indian Mahayana Buddhism as the form for Tibet.
836-842	King Langdharma persecutes Tibetan Buddhists.
845	Chinese emperor suppresses Buddhism.
early 10th cent.	Korea institutes a Buddhist constitution
11th cent.	King of Burma restores Theravadin monasticism. Mahayana Buddhism declines.
mid-12th cent.	Buddhism is virtually extinct in India.
1185-1333	During the Kamakura period in Japan, schools of Rinzai, Soto Zen, Jodo Shu (Pure Land), Jodo Shinshu (True Pure Land), and Nichiren develop.
1231-59	Mongols invade Korea, destroy Buddhist scriptures.
1253	Mongolian leader Kublai Khan accepts Tibetan Buddhism.
1360	Theravada Buddhism becomes state religion of Thailand.
14th cent.	Theravada Buddhism introduced in Laos.
15th cent.	Theravada Buddhism dominant in Cambodia.
1578	Sonam Gyatso is titled the Dalai Lama by the Mongolian leader Altan Khan.
1592-98	Japanese invade Korea.
1617-82	Life of the fifth Dalai Lama and beginning of rule of Tibet by Dalai Lamas.
1617-82	Life of Basho; Buddhist influence on haiku and the arts in Japan
17-18th cent.	Korean Buddhism revives after regaining independence.
1749	Mongolian Buddhist canon translated from Tibetan.
1868	Shinto reinstated as national religion of Japan.
1910-45	Reformations of Korean and Chinese Buddhism.
1945	Religious freedom introduced in Japan, with no official national religion.
1949	Buddhism suppressed by Chinese communist government.
1950	Tenzin Gyatso becomes the fourteenth Dalai Lama. China invades Tibet and suppresses Buddhism.
1959	The Dalai Lama goes into exile.
1976	Upon the death of Mao, Buddhism begins to revive in China.
1989	International Network of Engaged Buddhists founded.
1995	UK Association of Buddhist Studies founded.
2001	Destruction of standing Buddha statues at Bamiyan by Taliban regime.

Sources

1. John Bowker, ed., The Cambridge Illustrated History of Religions (Cambridge UP, 2002).
2. Damien Keown, A Dictionary of Buddhism (Oxford UP, 2003), Appendix VI, pp. 355-57.

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Buddhist Symbols

In the earliest centuries of Buddhism, statues of the Buddha were not used. Instead, Buddhist art consisted of images symbolizing the Buddha and his teachings, such as the lotus, the Wheel of the Law, the Bodhi tree and the Buddha's footprints.

Eventually, the Buddha image became one of the most popular representations in Buddhism, but these early symbols remain important and are frequently used to this day. They are especially important in Theravada Buddhistcountries like Sri Lanka and Thailand.

As Buddhism spread, Buddhist symbolism was enriched by the cultures it came into contact with. This is especially true of Buddhism in Tibet, which has developed a rich symbolic tradition. The central symbols of Tibetan Buddhismare the Eight Auspicious Symbols, known in Sanskrit as Ashtamangala (ashta meaning eight and mangalameaning auspicious). The Eight Auspicious Symbols are printed on Tibetan prayer flags, incorporated into mandalas and thangkas, and used in other forms of ritual art. Another important symbol is the Wheel of Life, a symbolic representation of the universe as understood by Tibetan Buddhists.

Other important types of symbolism in Buddhism include colors, especially the five colors of white, yellow, red, blue and green, and symbolic hand gestures called mudras. The articles in this section explore these Buddhist symbols, providing information on their history, meaning and use in Buddhism today. (For an introduction and quick guide to Buddhist colors, see our Chart of Buddhist Color Symbolism.)

Compare Buddhism to over 40 other religions

Abhaya Mudra

Bhumisparsha Mudra

Buddha Eyes

Buddhapada

Conch Shell

Dharmachakra

Dharmachakra Mudra

Dhyana Mudra

Eight Auspicious Symbols

Endless Knot

Golden Fishes

Lotus

Om Mani Padme Hum

Parasol

Swastika

Triratna

Varada Mudra

Wheel of Life

Zen Circle

Blue

Black

Green

Red

White

Yellow

On virtually every stupa (Buddhist shrine) in Nepal, there are giant pairs of eyes staring out from the four sides of the main tower.

These are Buddha Eyes (also known as Wisdom Eyes), and they look out in the four directions to symbolize the omniscience (all-seeing) of a Buddha.

The Buddha eyes are so prevalent throughout the country that they have become a symbol of Nepal itself.

Between the Buddha's eyes where the nose would be is a curly symbol that looks like question mark.

This is the Nepali character for the number 1, which symbolizes unity of all the things as well as the one way to reach enlightenment—through the Buddha's teachings.

Above this is a third eye, symbolizing the all-seeing wisdom of the Buddha.

The Swastika Symbol in Buddhism

Swastika on the door of a Korean temple.
Photo: Lance Johnson.


Swastika and lotus symbols on a lamp in Korea. Photo: Photocapy.


A swastika border on a Chinese amulet for protection. Photo: Michael Chen.


Swastika on a Buddhist temple in Taiwan.
Photo: Hakym.

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The swastika (Sanskrit svastika, "all is well") is a cross with four arms of equal length, with the ends of each arm bent at a right angle. Sometimes dots are added between each arm.

The swastika is an ancient symbol found worldwide, but it is especially common in India. It can be seen in the art of the Egyptians, Romans, Greeks, Celts, Native Americans, and Persians as well Hindus, Jains and Buddhists.

The swastika's Indian name comes the Sanskrit word svasti, meaninggood fortune, luck and well being.

In Hinduism, the right-hand (clockwise) swastika is a symbol of the sun and the god Vishnu, while the left-hand (counterclockwise) swastika represents Kali and magic. The Buddhist swastika is almost always clockwise, while the swastika adopted by the Nazis (many of whom had occult interests) is counterclockwise.

In Buddhism, the swastika signifies auspiciousness and good fortune as well as the Buddha's footprints and the Buddha's heart. The swastika is said to contain the whole mind of the Buddha and can often be found imprinted on the chest, feet or palms of Buddha images. It is also the first of the 65 auspicious symbols on the footprint of the Buddha.

The swastika has also often been used to mark the beginning of Buddhist texts. In China and Japan, the Buddhist swastika was seen as a symbol of plurality, eternity, abundance, prosperity and long life.

The swastika is used as an auspicious mark on Buddhist temples and is especially common in Korea. It can often be seen on the decorative borders around paintings, altar cloths and banners. In Tibetan Buddhism, it is also used as a clothing decoration.

Sources

1. "Swastika." Damien Keown, A Dictionary of Buddhism (Oxford UP, 2003), 287.
2. "General Buddhist Symbols: Swastika." A View on Buddhism Accessed March 2005.
3. Meher McArthur, Reading Buddhist Art: An Illustrated Guide to Buddhist Signs and Symbols (Thames & Hudson, 2004), 50.

Om Mani Padme Hum

Om mani padme hum is the most important mantra in Buddhism. It is the six syllable mantra of the Bodhisattva of compassion Avalokiteshvara.

Om Mani Padme Hum in Tibetan script.

Om Mani Padme Hum inscribed on a stone.

The Dalai Lama is said to be an incarnation of Avalokiteshvara, so the mantra is especially revered by his devotees. Click here to hear the mantra chanted by a Tibetan refugee.

The basic English translation of Om mani padme hum is "Om Jewel in the Lotus Hum" or "Praise to the Jewel in the Lotus." However, the meaning and significance of the six Tibetan syllables have been interpreted in a variety of ways. One common interpretation is that each syllable corresponds to one of the six realms of existence and purifies the vice associated with that realm:

• Om purifies bliss and pride (realm of the gods)
• Ma purifies jealousy and need for entertainment (realm of the jealous gods)
• Ni purifies passion and desire (human realm)
• Pad purifies ignorance and prejudice (animal realm)
• Me purifies poverty and possessiveness (realm of the hungry ghosts)
• Hum purifies aggression and hatred (hell realm)

It has also been said that recitation of each of the syllables prevents rebirth in the corresponding realm.

The first known description of the mantra appears in the Karandavyuha Sutra, which is part of certain Mahayana canons such as the Tibetan canon. In this sutra, the Buddha says:

"This is the most beneficial mantra. Even I made this aspiration to all the million Buddhas and subsequently received this teaching from Buddha Amitabha."

In his book Heart Treasure of the Enlightened Ones, Gen Rinproche says of the mantra:

"The mantra Om Mani Pädme Hum is easy to say yet quite powerful, because it contains the essence of the entire teaching. When you say the first syllable Om it is blessed to help you achieve perfection in the practice of generosity, Ma helps perfect the practice of pure ethics, and Ni helps achieve perfection in the practice of tolerance and patience. Päd, the fourth syllable, helps to achieve perfection of perseverance, Me helps achieve perfection in the practice of concentration, and the final sixth syllable Hum helps achieve perfection in the practice of wisdom.

So in this way recitation of the mantra helps achieve perfection in the six practices from generosity to wisdom. The path of these six perfections is the path walked by all the Buddhas of the three times. What could then be more meaningful than to say the mantra and accomplish the six perfections?"

Sources

1. Meher McArthur, Reading Buddhist Art: An Illustrated Guide to Buddhist Signs and Symbols (Thames & Hudson, 2004), 156.
2. "Om Mani Padme Hum." Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

Tara and Wrathful Deities Wrathful Deities

Tara (Sanskrit, "star") is a Buddhist savior-goddess especially popular in Tibet, Nepal and Mongolia. In Tibet, where Tara is the most important deity, her name is Sgrol-ma, meaning "she who saves." The mantra of Tara (om tare tuttare ture svaha) is the second most common mantra heard in Tibet, after the mantra of Chenrezi (om mani padme hum).  

The goddess of universal compassion, Tara represents virtuous and enlightened action. It is said that her compassion for living beings is stronger than a mother's love for her children. She also brings about longevity, protects earthly travel, and guards her followers on their spiritual journey to enlightenment.

Origins of Tara

Before she was adopted by Buddhism, Tara was worshipped in Hinduism as a manifestation of the goddess Parvati. The feminine principle was not venerated in Buddhism until the fourth century CE, and Tara probably entered Buddhism around the sixth century CE.

According to Buddhist tradition, Tara was born out of the tears of compassion of the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara. It is said that he wept as he looked upon the world of suffering beings, and his tears formed a lake in which a lotus sprung up. When the lotus opened, the goddess Tara was revealed.

A similar tradition has White Tara born from the tears of Avalokiteshvara's left eye and the Green Tara born from those of his right. In a third legend, Tara was born from a beam of blue light emanating from one of the eyes of Avalokiteshvara. Tara is also the consort of Avalokiteshvara.

Green Tara, with her half-open lotus, represents the night, and White Tara, with her lotus in full bloom, symbolizes the day. Green Tara embodies virtuous activity while White Tara displays serenity and grace. Together, the Green and White Taras symbolize the unending compassion of the goddess who labors day and night to relieve suffering.

In seventh-century Tibet, Tara was believed to be incarnated in every pious woman. She especially came to be associated with two historical wives of the first Buddhist king of Tibet, Srong-brtsan-sgam-po (d. 649). His wife from imperial China was said to be an incarnation of White Tara, while the king's Nepalese wife was an incarnation of Green Tara. It may be that the desire to regard both these pious women as incarnations of Tara led to the concept of the goddess's green and white forms.

Green Tara

Green Tara (Sanskrit: Syamatara; Tibetan: Sgrol-ljang), filled with youthful vigor, is a goddess of activity. She is the fiercer form of Tara, but is still a savior-goddess of compassion. She is the consort of Avalokiteshvara and considered by some to be the original Tara. Like Avalokiteshvara, the Green Tara is believed to be an emanation of the "self-born" Buddha Amitabha, and an image of Amitabha is sometimes depicted in Tara's headdress.

Green Tara is believed to have been incarnated as the Nepali wife of the Tibetan king Srong-brtsan-sgam-po. In Buddhism, the color green signifies activity and accomplishment. Thus Amoghasiddhi, the Lord of Action, is also associted with the color green.

Green Tara is iconographically depicted in a posture of ease and readiness for action. While her left leg is folded in the contemplative position, her right leg is outstretched, ready to spring into action. Green Tara's left hand is in the refuge-granting mudra (gesture); her right hand makes the boon-granting gesture. In her hands she also holds closed blue lotuses (utpalas), which symbolize purity and power. She is adorned with the rich jewels of a bodhisattva.

In Buddhist religious practice, Green Tara's primary role is savioress. She is believed to help her followers overcome dangers, fears and anxieties, and she is especially worshipped for her ability to overcome the most difficult of situations. Green Tara is intensely compassionate and acts quickly to help those who call upon her.

The iconography and role of Green Tara is illustrated in this medieval devotional hymn:

On a lotus seat, standing for realization of voidness,
(You are) the emerald-colored, one-faced, two-armed Lady
In youth's full bloom, right leg out, left drawn in,
Showing the union of wisdom and art - homage to you!

Like the outstretched branch of the heavenly turquoise tree,
Your supple right hand makes the boon- granting gesture,
Inviting the wise to a feast of supreme accomplishments,
As if to an entertainment-homage to you!

Your left hand gives us refuge, showing the Three Jewels;
It says, "You people who see a hundred dangers,
Don't be frightened-I shall swiftly save you!"
Homage to you!

Both hands signal with blue utpala flowers,
"Samsaric beings! Cling not to worldly pleasures.
Enter the great city of liberation!"
Flower-goads prodding us to effort-homage to you!

---First Dalai Lama (1391-1474)

White Tara

White Tara (Sanskrit: Sitatara; Tibetan: Sgrol-dkar) is sometimes called the Mother of all Buddhas and she represents the motherly aspect of compassion. Her white color signifies purity, wisdom and truth.

In iconography, White Tara often has seven eyes – in addition to the usual two, she has a third eye on her forehead and one on each of her hands and feet. This symbolizes her vigilance and ability to see all the suffering in the world. The "Tara of Seven Eyes" is the form of the goddess especially popular in Mongolia.

White Tara wears silk robes and scarves that leave her slender torso and rounded breasts uncovered in the manner of ancient India. Like Green Tara, she is richly adorned with jewels.

White Tara is seated in the diamond lotus position, with the soles of her feet pointed upward. Her posture is one of grace and calm. Her right hand makes the boon-granting gesture and her left hand is in the protective mudra. In her left hand, White Tara holds an elaborate lotus flower that contains three blooms. The first is in seed and represents the past Buddha Kashyapa; the second is in full bloom and symbolizes the present Buddha Shakyamuni; the third is ready to bloom and signifies the future Buddha Maitreya. These three blooms symbolize that Tara is the essence of the three Buddhas.

In religious practice, White Tara is believed to help her followers overcome obstacles, espeically those that inhibit the practice of religion. She is also associated with longevity.

Other Taras

Tara is sometimes depicted in colors and forms other than green and white. Tibetan temple banners frequently show 21 different Taras, colored white, red, and yellow, and grouped around a central Green Tara. In her ferocious, blue form, invoked to destroy enemies, she is known as Ugra-Tara, or Ekajata; as a red goddess of love, Kurukulla; and as a protectress against snake bite, Janguli. The yellow Bhrkuti is an angry Tara.

In Japan, Tara is a bodhisattva called Tarani Bosatsu. The Japanese Tara embodies both the white and green forms of the Tibetan Tara, and is usually only found on mandalas and temple banners. She is pale green and holds a pomegranate (a symbol of prosperity) and a lotus. Tara is not often to be found in China.

Related Books

In Praise of Tara: Songs to the Saviouress



Tara the Feminine Divine



The Tara Box: Rituals for Protection and Healing



The Cult of Tara in Tibet

Wrathful Deities

An enigmatic aspect of Tibetan Buddhist iconography is the presence of ferocious, terrifying forms known as thewrathful deities. Though these hideous, hair-raising images seem contradictory to Buddhist ideals, they are not personifications of evil or demonic forces.
Rather, the wrathful deities are benevolent gods who symbolize the tremendous effort it takes to vanquish evil, the violence that is a fundamental reality of the cosmos and the human mind and protect the faithful by instilling terror in evil spirits.

In Sanskrit, the wrathful deities are known as dharmapalas, which means "defender of the dharma." In Tibetan, they are drag-gshed, meaning "cruel, wrathful hangman."

The Eight Wrathful Deities

The most important category of wrathful deities is the group of eight dharampalas. The dharampalas, or defenders of Buddhism, are divinities with the rank of Bodhisattva who wage war without any mercy against the demons and enemies of Buddhism. These eight wrathful deities, which can be worshipped as a group of "Eight Terrible Ones" or individually, are:

1. Lha-mo (Tibetan: “Goddess”; Sanskrit: Sri-devi, or Kala-devi) - fierce goddess of the city of Lhasa and the only feminine wrathful deity
2. Tshangs-pa Dkar-po (Tibetan: “White Brahma”; Sanskrit: Sita-Brahma)
3. Beg-tse (Tibetan: “Hidden Sheet of Mail”)
4. Yama (Sanskrit; Tibetan: Gshin-rje) - the god of death, often shown gripping the Tibetan wheel of life
5. Kubera, or Vaisravana (Sanskrit; Tibetan: Rnam-thos-sras) - the god of wealth and the only wrathful deity who is never represented in a fierce form
6. Mahakala (Sanskrit: “Great Black One”; Tibetan: Mgon-po)
7. Hayagriva (Sanskrit: “Horse Neck”; Tibetan: Rta-mgrin)
8. Yamantaka (Sanskrit: “Conqueror of Yama, or Death”; Tibetan: Gshin-rje-gshed)

History of the Wrathful Deities

Worship of the wrathful deities was initiated in the 8th century by the magician-saint Padmasambhava, who is said to have conquered the malevolent deities in Tibet and forced them to vow to protect Buddhists and the Buddhist faith. Many of the wrathful deities can be linked to Hinduism, Bon (the indigenous religion of Tibet), or folk deities. {2}

Wrathful Deities in Buddhist Worship and Devotion

Images of the wrathful deities are kept in the homes and temples of Tibetan Buddhists to protect them against evil influences and remind them to destroy passion and evil in themselves. In general Buddhist practice, sculptures and thangkas are intended as temporary dwellings for the spiritual beings into which Buddhism projects its analysis of the nature of the world. They are thus not just aesthetic objects but actual dwellings for the energies projected into them with the aid of mantras. The power of those energies can then be directed towards the Buddhist goal. The wrathful deities, though benevolent, are represented in visual arts as hideous and ferocious in order to instill terror in evil spirits which threaten the dharma.
The wrathful deities can also be a focus of Buddhist devotion and worship. "The dharmapalas are worshiped in the mgon khang, a subterranean room, the entrance to which is often guarded by stuffed wild yaks or leopards. Priests wear special vestments and use ritual instruments often made of human bone or skin. Worship includes the performance of masked dances ('cham)." {2}
"External offerings" made to the wrathful deities differ from those provided to tranquil deities and are traditionally six in number: a cemetary flower, incense of singed flesh, lamp burning human fat (or a substitute), scent of bile, blood (usually symbolized by red water) and human flesh (usually symbolized by parched barley flour and butter realistically colored and modeled). {3} Similarly, the "internal offering" or Offering of the Five Senses given to wrathful deities is a skull cup containing a heart, tongue, nose, pair of eyes, and pair of ears. In Tibetan texts, these are human organs, but in actual ceremonies barley-flour-and-butter replicas are used instead. {4}

Iconography of Wrathful Deities

The wrathful protective deities are depicted in sculptures, paintings and masks as figures with stout bodies, short but thick limbs, several heads and a great number of hands and feet. They have scowling faces, a third eye and disheveled hair, and they wear crowns of skulls or severed heads. They are often depicted treading on animals and in the company of a female consort.
The color of their faces and bodies is frequently compared with the characteristic hue of clouds, precious stones, or other natural objects. Thus we often read in the Sadhanas (canonical texts) that one or the other wrathful deity is black "like the cloud which appears at the end of a kalpa (aeon)", blue "like an emerald" or white "like a mountain of crystal". The yellow color is compared to that of pure gold, and the red color of some of them is supposed to be "like the hue produced when the sun rises and its rays strike a huge mountain of coral."
Their faces possess a typical wrathful expression: the mouth is contorted to an angry smile, from its corners protrude long fangs - often said to be of copper or iron - or the upper teeth gnaw the lower lip. A "mist of illnesses" comes forth from the mouth and a terrific storm is supposed to be blowing from the nostrils of the flat nose. The protruding, bloodshot eyes have an angry and staring expression and usually a third eye is visible in the middle of the forehead.

References

1. Wrathful Guardians of Buddhism - Aesthetics and Mythology. Article of the Month - February 2001, Buddha Art. <http://www.buddhart.com/article/wrathful/>
2. "dharmapala." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9030217>
3. "phyi-mchod." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9059852>.
4. "nang-mchod." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=9054776>.

See Also

• Buddhist Objects: Mandalas

Related Shopping

• Buddha Art has about 30 thangka paintings of wrathful deities.
• Tibet Shop has 60 to 70 thangkas, sculptures, and ritual items featuring wrathful deities.

External Links on the Wrathful Deities

• Mirrors of the Heart-Mind: Protective Deities. Gallery of photos with explanatory captions. From Ohio State University.
• Robert A.F. Thurman, "Erotic and Terrific Images of Tibetan Buddhism." Article excerpted from Tibet, Its Buddhism, and Its Art, published 1996 by Harry N. Abraham.

Books on Wrathful Deities