Buddhist Scriptures and Texts

There are a vast number of Buddhist scriptures and religious texts, which are commonly divided into the categories of canonical and non-canonical. The former, also called the Sutras (Sanskrit) or Suttas (Pali) are believed to be, either literally or metaphorically, the actual words of the Buddha. The latter are the various commentaries on canonical texts, other treatises on the Dharma, and collections of quotes, histories, grammars, etc.

This categorization is not universal, however: there will always be texts that cross boundaries, or that belong in more than one category. Moreover, Zen Buddhism rejects scriptures altogether as an ineffective path to enlightenment.

The articles below provide overviews of some of the most notable Buddhist texts.

Tripitaka (Pali Canon)

The Tripitaka (Tipitaka in Pali) is the earliest collection of Buddhist teachings and the only text recognized as canonical by Theravada Buddhists. Many commentaries have been added over the centuries, however. Tripitaka means "three baskets," from the way in which it was originally recorded: the text was written on long, narrow leaves, which were sewn at the edges then grouped into bunches and stored in baskets. The collection is also referred to as the Pali Canon, after the language in which it was first written. It is a vast collection of writings, comprising up to 50 volumes costing $2000 in some modern sets. Full article »

Mahayana Sutras

Mahayana Buddhism reveres the Tripitaka as a sacred text, but adds to it the Sutras, which reflect distinctively Mahayana concepts. Most of the Mahayana Sutras, which number over two thousand, were written between 200 BCE and 200 CE, the period in which Mahayana Buddhism developed. Different divisions of Mahayana Buddhism emphasize different Sutras, but some texts, like the Lotus Sutra and Heart Sutra, are important to most branches of Mahayana. Full article »

Tibetan Book of the Dead

The Tibetan Book of the Dead is the Tibetan text that is most well known to the West. Written by a Tibetan monk, the Book of the Dead describes in detail the stages of death from the Tibetan point of view. It chronicles the experiences and religious opportunities a person encounters at various stages: while dying, at the moment of death, during the 49-day interval between death and rebirth, and at rebirth. Full article »

Buddhist Things: Buddhist Art and Ritual Objects

The articles in this section explore the form, function and symbolism of the rich variety of objects used in Buddhist ritual and symbolic art.

General Buddhist Things			Tibetan Buddhist Things
	Begging Bowl The simple begging bowl is one of the very few possessions of a Buddhist monk. It is used to collect alms and symbolizes the Buddha's teachings.			Mandala A mandala is a sacred geometric figure that represents the universe and functions as a sacred area open to deities and forces.
	Buddha Image Although not used in earliest Buddhism, the Buddha image has become one of the most popular Mahayana Buddhist ritual objects.			Musical Instruments Bells, drums, trumpets and horns are used especially in esoteric Buddhism to symbolize mantras, dispel evil, and send out the Dharma.
	Incense Burners  One of the most universal of Buddhist ritual vessels, incense burners are used in all Buddhist cultures and range from large pots to small censers.			Prayer Wheel The Tibetan prayer wheel contains a roll of printed mantras; to spin the wheel is to release the prayers into the universe.
	Prayer Beads (Mala) Prayer beads, or mala beads, usually have 108 beads and are used both in Hinduism and Buddhism for counting mantras, chants or prayers.			Singing Bowl  When rubbed with a wooden puja stick, a Tibetan singing bowl makes a resonant sound that assists in meditation and produces a calming effect.
	Monks' Robes The garb of Buddhist monks varies widely, from the simple saffron robes of Thailand to the elaborate robes and headdresses of Tibetan lamas.			Skull Cup  The skull cup, normally made from a human skull, is an object used in Tibetan rituals and associated with wrathful deities in art.
	Stupas and Pagodas Stupas and pagodas are shrines containing sacred relics and appear in many sizes and styles throughout the Buddhist world.			Thangka A thangka ("flat painting") is a painted or embroidered banner hung in a monastery or a family altar and carried by lamas in ceremonial processions.
	Zen Art  Zen monks created the unique art of monochrome ink painting and calligraphy, which expresses the Zen principles of simplicity and spontaneity.			Vajra (Diamond Thunderbolt) The vajra is the central symbol and an important ritual object in Vajrayana Buddhism.
				Ritual Weapons Ritual weapons are used in Tibetan Buddhist art and ritual to symbolize the vanquishing of evil and ignorance.

Buddhism Timeline

c. 800-500 BCE	Composition of Hindu Upanishads
552-479 BCE	Life of Confucius
c. 500 BCE	Life of Lao-tzu
c. 480 BCE	Birth of the Buddha in Kapilavastu.
c. 450 BCE	The Buddha's enlightenment and first sermon.
c. 405 BCE	Death of the Buddha.
c. 405 BCE	First Buddhist Council, at Rajagrha.
c. 350 BCE	Second Buddhist Council, at Vaisali.
327-325 BCE	Alexander the Great in India.
c. 300 BCE	Buddhism arrives in SE Asia.
272 BCE	Emperor Asoka takes throne.
250 BCE	Third Buddhist Council, resulting in Great Schism and Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism
247 BCE	Mahinda introduces Buddhism to Sri Lanka.
200-0 BCE	Stupa construction at Sanci.
1st cent. BCE	Theravada Buddhist Canon (Tripitaka) completed in Sri Lanka.
1st cent. CE	Indian Buddhists settle in Southeast Asia.
150-250 CE	Life of Nagarjuna.
4th cent.	Rise of Vajrayana Buddhism.
350-650	Gupta dynasty in India; Buddhist philosophy and art flourish.
372 CE	Chinese monks bring Buddhism to Korea.
399-414	Fa-hsien travels to India.
c. 420	Schools of Tiantai, Huayan, Chan, and Jingtu appear in China.
520	Bodhidharma arrives in China.
526	Viniaya school founded in Korea.
527	Korea accepts Buddhism.
6th cent.	Burma adopts Theravada Buddhism.
552	Buddhism enters Japan from Korea.
572-621	Prince Shotoku sponsors Buddhism in Japan.
c. 589	Chinese Buddhist commentaries written.
c. 600	First diffusion of Buddhism in Tibet.
618-50	Life of Songtsen Gampo; establishment of Buddhism in Tibet.
618-907	Chinese T'ang Dynasty; golden age of Buddhism in China.
7th cent.	Mahayana Buddhism adopted in Indonesia.
8th cent.	Buddhism becomes state religion of Japan.
741	Japanese emperor orders a temple be built in every province.
c. 792-94	The Great Samye Debate decides on Indian Mahayana Buddhism as the form for Tibet.
836-842	King Langdharma persecutes Tibetan Buddhists.
845	Chinese emperor suppresses Buddhism.
early 10th cent.	Korea institutes a Buddhist constitution
11th cent.	King of Burma restores Theravadin monasticism. Mahayana Buddhism declines.
mid-12th cent.	Buddhism is virtually extinct in India.
1185-1333	During the Kamakura period in Japan, schools of Rinzai, Soto Zen, Jodo Shu (Pure Land), Jodo Shinshu (True Pure Land), and Nichiren develop.
1231-59	Mongols invade Korea, destroy Buddhist scriptures.
1253	Mongolian leader Kublai Khan accepts Tibetan Buddhism.
1360	Theravada Buddhism becomes state religion of Thailand.
14th cent.	Theravada Buddhism introduced in Laos.
15th cent.	Theravada Buddhism dominant in Cambodia.
1578	Sonam Gyatso is titled the Dalai Lama by the Mongolian leader Altan Khan.
1592-98	Japanese invade Korea.
1617-82	Life of the fifth Dalai Lama and beginning of rule of Tibet by Dalai Lamas.
1617-82	Life of Basho; Buddhist influence on haiku and the arts in Japan
17-18th cent.	Korean Buddhism revives after regaining independence.
1749	Mongolian Buddhist canon translated from Tibetan.
1868	Shinto reinstated as national religion of Japan.
1910-45	Reformations of Korean and Chinese Buddhism.
1945	Religious freedom introduced in Japan, with no official national religion.
1949	Buddhism suppressed by Chinese communist government.
1950	Tenzin Gyatso becomes the fourteenth Dalai Lama. China invades Tibet and suppresses Buddhism.
1959	The Dalai Lama goes into exile.
1976	Upon the death of Mao, Buddhism begins to revive in China.
1989	International Network of Engaged Buddhists founded.
1995	UK Association of Buddhist Studies founded.
2001	Destruction of standing Buddha statues at Bamiyan by Taliban regime.

Sources

1. John Bowker, ed., The Cambridge Illustrated History of Religions (Cambridge UP, 2002).
2. Damien Keown, A Dictionary of Buddhism (Oxford UP, 2003), Appendix VI, pp. 355-57.

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